Gregorian Chant Guidelines (For Extra-Credit)
Gregorian Chant
Contrary to the popular myth that Gregorian chant was the direct compositional work of Pope Gregory, the seminal event that led to the repertory of Gregorian chant was the visit of Pope Stephen II to Paris in 754. The papal liturgies made a profound impression on King Pepin of the Franks who subsequently ordered Roman chant to be sung in the Frankish kingdom. This effort was continued by his son Charlemagne, cantors were brought from Rome to teach chant to the Franks, and Frankish cantors were also sent to Rome to learn the chant. The Franks made two major contributions to the body of chant: they fitted the chants into the ancient Greek system of eight modes (the octoechos), and also invented notation, using neumes to show the shape of a remembered melody. Gregorian chant continued to develop and be reformed in its usage down to the 20th Century, where it began to fall into disuse following the Vatican II Council.
After full-heartedly adopting the chant of the Church of Rome as the sung form of the Mass and the Offices, the first major contributions of the Franks the development of Gregorian chant was fitting the chants into the ancient Greek system of eight modes (the octoechos), which were used in Byzantine chant. Each mode was characterized by a tonic note and a dominant note, which made their tonality distinctive. In a few cases, a chant had to be modified to fit into this new pattern. In addition to the early formalization of the structure of Gregorian chant into eight modes. The Franks also invented notation, using neumes to show the shape of a remembered melody. But the neumes were useless if the melody they represented was not already known.
By 900 the Franks had added neumes to complete Graduals. The early systems of neumes varied from one part of the kingdom to another. The neumes written in different monasteries were quite different, though they conveyed the same information. In the following century the neumes in new manuscripts were “heightened,” conveying a fairly clear idea of the melodies. Later a line, or two lines, were drawn to identify the notes C and F. Finally, in the eleventh century, a new system of notation on a four-line staff became universal. While these manuscripts show the melodies (by this time forgotten) clearly, they have lost the nuances of rhythm that the first neumes had conveyed.
In addition to composing chants for new feasts, the Franks also developed new classes of chants. The Ordinary chants were no longer sung by the people, so many new and more elaborate chants could be composed for the choir. The Credo was not sung in Rome at all until, under Frankish influence, it was added to the Roman Mass in the eleventh century. Additionally, the Franks composed a great number of new hymns, including several hymns for each saint’s Office. Sequences were added to most Masses after the alleluia verse. Tropes, or explanatory phrases, were added to every ordinary and proper part of the Mass.
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Charles Martel (cont.)
Early Life:
Born on August 23, 686, Charles Martel was the son of Pippin the Middle and his mistress Alpaida. The mayor of the palace to the king of the Franks, Pippin essentially ruled the country in his place. Shortly before his death in 714, Pippin's wife, Plectrude convinced him to disinherit his bastard children in favor of his eight-year old grandson Theudoald. This move angered the Frankish nobility and following Pippin's death, Plectrude had Charles imprisoned to prevent him from becoming a rallying point for their discontent.
Personal Life:
Charles Martel first married Rotrude of Treves with whom he had five children before her death in 724. These were Hiltrud, Carloman, Landrade, Auda, and Pippin the Younger. Following Rotrude's death, Charles married Swanhild, with whom he had a son Grifo. In addition to his two wives, Charles had an ongoing affair with his mistress, Ruodhaid. Their relationship produced four children, Bernard, Hieronymus, Remigius, and Ian.
Rise to Power:
By the end of 715, Charles had escaped from captivity and found support among the Austrasians. Over the next three years, Charles conducted a civil war that culminated in the Battle of Soissons against King Chilperic and the Duke of Aquitaine, Odo the Great. Victorious, Charles was able to gain recognition for his titles as mayor of the palace and duke and prince of the Franks. Over the next five years he consolidated power as well as conquered Bavaria and Alemmania. With the Frankish lands secured, Charles next began to prepare for an anticipated attack from the Muslim Umayyads to the south.
Battle of Tours:
In 721, the Umayyads first came north and were defeated by Odo at the Battle of Toulouse. Having assessed the situation in Iberia and the Umayyad attack on Aquitaine, Charles came to believe that a professional army, rather than raw conscripts, was needed to defend the realm from invasion. To raise the money necessary to build and train an army that could withstand the Muslim horsemen, Charles began seizing Church lands, earning the ire of the religious community. In 732, the Umayyads moved north again led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. Commanding approximately 80,000 men, he plundered Aquitaine.
As Abdul Rahman sacked Aquitaine, Odo fled north to seek aid from Charles. This was granted in exchange for Odo recognizing Charles as his overlord. Mobilizing his army, Charles moved to intercept the Umayyads. In order to avoid detection and allow Charles to select the battlefield, the approximately 30,000 Frankish troops moved over secondary roads toward the town of Tours. For the battle, Charles selected a high, wooded plain which would force the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill. Forming a large square, his men surprised Abdul Rahman, forcing the Umayyad emir to pause for a week to consider his options.
On the seventh day, after gathering all of his forces, Abdul Rahman attacked with his Berber and Arab cavalry. In one of the few instances where medieval infantry stood up to cavalry, Charles' troops defeated repeated Umayyad attacks. As the battle waged, the Umayyads finally broke through the Frankish lines and attempted to kill Charles. He was promptly surrounded by his personal guard who repulsed the attack. As this was occurring, scouts that Charles had sent out earlier were infiltrating the Umayyad camp and freeing prisoners.
Believing that the plunder of the campaign was being stolen, a large part of the Umayyad army broke off the battle and raced to protect their camp. While attempting to stop the apparent retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by Frankish troops. Briefly pursued by the Franks, the Umayyad withdrawal turned into a full retreat. Charles reformed his troops expecting another attack, but to his surprise it never came as the Umayyads continued their retreat all the way to Iberia. Charles' victory at the Battle of Tours saved Western Europe from the Muslim invasions and was a turning point in European history.
Later Life:
After spending the next three years securing his eastern borders, Charles moved south to fend off an Umayyad invasion in Provence. In 736, he led a successful campaign that expelled the Umayyads from the region and for the first time integrated heavy cavalry into his formations. From 737, until his death in 741, Charles focused on the administration of his realm and expanding his influence. When he died on October 22, 741, his lands were divided between his sons Carloman and Pippin the Younger. The latter would father the next great Carolingian leader, Charlemagne.
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